Nature conservation before 1945
Interest in nature conservancy in Great Britain developed during the 19th century, when naturalists came to believe that cruelty and over-collecting were becoming the greatest threats to wildlife. Bodies such as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) were founded to fight these practices. The RSPB grew out of the Fur and Feather Group, set up in 1889, which was founded on the issue of the feather trade which killed birds cruelly. In 1904 a royal charter outlined aims to encourage conservation and discourage wanton destruction of birds. In 1895 the National Trust (NT) for England and Wales was registered, concerned not only with the preservation of historic buildings but also with the conservation of nature and landscape. The National Trust Act 1907 became the foundation stone upon the Trust's future was built. Its main point was that land belonging to the Trust could not be sold, mortgaged or given away but it could be leased with the permission of the Charity Commission. In 1912, the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves (SPNR) was inaugurated, created by Charles Rothschild, who saw the need for an integrated string of reserves across the country. The SPNR aimed to collect and collate information regarding areas of land in the UK which retained 'primitive conditions' and contained rare and local species liable to extinction; to prepare schemes showing which areas should be secured as nature reserves; to obtain such areas; and to preserve for posterity as a national possession some parts of the UK, its floral, fauna and geographical features.1
In 1915 a provisional list of potential reserves was presented to the Board of Agriculture. These consisted of some 284 sites covering Britain and Ireland, graded into 3 categories. Many of these sites remain prime places for wildlife. Following the First World War, and the death of Rothschild, the conservation movement suffered as funds were scarce and public interest declined greatly. Despite this, in 1914 the first legal protection was given to a British mammal with the introduction of the Grey Seals (Protection) Act, which introduced a closed season from mid-October to December. The badger was another cause for concern; poisoning it became illegal in England and Wales in 1911 and in Scotland a year later. Birds gained further protection from the Importation of Plumage (Prohibition) Act 1921. British flora remained largely unprotected with local by-laws being ineffective. Efforts such as listings of rare plants were published for certain counties but served mainly to alert the collector.
During the first half of the 20th century changes in land use and management brought an even greater threat to wildlife through the destruction of habitats. These changes in land use occurred at an unprecedented rate: e.g. between 1920 and 1940 4 million houses were built, with a loss of over 25,000 hectares every year of the 1930s. By the 1920s oil pollution was seen to be destroying seabirds in substantial numbers. In 1922 the Oil in Navigable Waters Act prevented the discharge of oil within 3 miles of the British coast. Pesticides were another environmental problem. In the 1940s the government became more involved in land use planning and in the development of the concept of national parks.
Nature Conservancy 1949-1973
In 1945 the government set up the Wildlife Conservation Special Committee (the Huxley Committee) to examine the needs of nature conservancy in England and Wales (a separate committee undertook the same task in Scotland under Sir Douglas Ramsey). The Huxley Report, published in 1947, contained a list of proposed nature reserves where wildlife would be effectively studied and protected. The Committee also recommended the setting up of an official biological service to establish and maintain the reserves, carry out the necessary research and advise on nature conservation generally. The government accepted the recommendations and in 1948 set up a nature conservancy board (soon to be renamed Nature Conservancy) with Cyril Diver as its director and Sir Arthur Tansley as chairman, and a biological service, responsible to the Agricultural Research Council. On 23 March 1949 the Nature Conservancy was established by royal charter as a separate body under the aegis of a committee of the Privy Council. Nature Conservancy derived its statutory powers from the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. It owned or leased National Nature Reserves (NNRs) or entered into a Nature Reserve Agreement whereby the owner, lessee or occupier allowed the Nature Conservancy to implement a management programme for conservation on their property. The Act granted the Nature Conservancy powers of compulsory land acquisition and to formulate by-laws for the protection of each reserve.
The Huxley Committee recommended the creation of Sites of Special Scientific Interest to provide some protection for areas outside the statutory reserves. This recommendation was adopted. The Nature Conservancy also established a number of research stations to meet the Huxley Committee's recommendation that survey and experimental work should be undertaken. The first stations were set up at Merlewood in the Lake District and Furzebrook in the Isle of Purbeck.
In 1965 the Nature Conservancy became part of a new body, the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), responsible to the Secretary of State for Education and Science. The Conservancy's responsibility for establishing and managing reserves and for undertaking relevant research remained virtually unchanged.
Nature Conservancy Council 1973-1991
In 1973 the Nature Conservancy was abolished and replaced by a new Nature Conservancy Council (NCC) created under the Nature Conservancy Council Act 1973. The new council was a grant aided body, financed by and responsible to the Department of the Environment. The council was responsible for establishing, maintaining and managing National Nature Reserves and providing advice and disseminating knowledge relevant to nature conservation. Research staff of the former Conservancy remained in the Natural Environment Research Council and became staff of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology. In 1974 the NCC took on new functions. These included promoting legislation relating to European Economic Community regulations; providing financial support to non-governmental organisations for the purchase of reserves, staff, etc; commissioning and supporting research; advising ministers on policies regarding nature conservation; continuing NNR acquisitions and biological survey and launching a geological conservation review.
In 1981 the Wildlife and Countryside Act was introduced which extended protection for wild creatures and plants, and in particular legislated for the comprehensive protection of 15 species of bats. It also prohibited the picking, removal and offering for sale of 62 species of plants, and allowed the NCC to collect the seeds of threatened species for storage. The Act also dealt with access to the countryside and habitat conservation. The Act was further amended in 1985, mainly with respect to agricultural concerns. In 1991 the NCC was replaced by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC), and by separate conservation bodies (English Nature, Scottish Natural Heritage and the Countryside Council for Wales) which were established for England, Scotland and Wales: see below for details of these bodies.
Joint Nature Conservation Committee 1991-
The Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) was established by the Environmental Protection Act 1990 and began work in 1991. The JNCC is the forum through which the three conservation agencies in England, Scotland and Wales (English Nature, Scottish Natural Heritage and the Countryside Council for Wales) deliver their statutory responsibilities for Great Britain as a whole and internationally. The Environment and Heritage Service of Northern Ireland is also a member of the Committee. This Service is part of the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland and works to control air, water and land pollution, identify and manage sites of conservation value, manage country parks, countryside centres and historic monuments and is involved in the protection and recording of historic monuments and buildings. It also advises the government on the development of these policies.
The responsibilities of the JNCC, known as its "special functions", contribute to sustaining and enriching biological diversity, enhancing geological features and sustaining natural systems. Its special functions are to advise ministers on the development of policies for or affecting nature conservation in Great Britain and internationally; to provide advice and knowledge to anyone on nature conservation issues affecting Great Britain and internationally; to establish common standards throughout Great Britain for the monitoring of nature conservation and for research into nature conservation and the analysis of results; and to commission or support research which the Committee deems relevant to the special functions. The JNCC has thirteen members: a Chairman and three independent members appointed by Government; the chairman and one other council member from English Nature, Scottish Natural Heritage and the Countryside Council for Wales; the chairman of the Countryside Agency; and two non-voting members from the Environment and Heritage Service of Northern Ireland.
English Nature 1991-
In 1991 the Nature Conservancy Council became responsible for English matters only, and was renamed English Nature (EN). EN acts as the government's advisor on nature conservation in England; provides information and advice to other organisations and individuals; supports and conducts research relating to nature conservation; and provides grants to assist in nature conservation. It selects, establishes and manages National Nature Reserves and Marine Nature Reserves, and identifies and notifies Sites of Special Scientific Interest. EN implements international conventions and European Community directives on nature conservation. As part of this function, it has played a leading role in implementing the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, which was published in 1994 as a way of fulfilling the UK's obligations under the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity. EN's Species Recovery Programme, initiated in 1991, consists of a range of partnership projects aimed at halting and reversing the decline in animal and plant populations under threat. EN also issues licences to permit people to work with protected animals and plants. Through the JNCC, EN works with sister organisations in Scotland and Wales on UK and international conservation issues. In 2002 it was organised into 22 area teams covering specific regions of England, with a head office in Peterborough.
Countryside Council for Wales 1991-
The Countryside Council for Wales (CCW) was established by the Environmental Protection Act 1990 and began work in April 1991. It is the statutory adviser on wildlife, countryside and maritime conservation matters in Wales. It is the executive authority for the conservation of habitats and wildlife. In partnership with local authorities, voluntary organisations and interested individuals. it works to promote the protection of landscape, opportunities for its enjoyment, and the support of those who live, work in and manage the countryside. The CCW is accountable to the National Assembly for Wales and has twelve council members. In common with its sister organisations, it gives advice to government concerning threats to the environment, environmental impact studies, international matters and new legislation. CCW protects rare species, monitors changes in habitats and species and in the landscape, and has played a leading role in the implementation in Wales of the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Its licensing section issues licences to members of the public and organisations to carry out work on protected species. CCW designates sites as National Nature Reserves, Marine Nature Reserves, Sites of Special Scientific Interest, and other conservation protection designations. It maintains a Register of Welsh Historic Landscapes, covering historic parks and gardens, and the historic landscapes of Wales (including agricultural and industrial landscapes), which made the nation and its people.
As part of the European Community's Common Agricultural Policy, CCW and its partners have been responsible since 1999 for the delivery of Tir Gofal (an all-Wales agri-environment scheme), while CCW itself administers Tir Cymen, an experimental whole farm scheme established in 1992. CCW promotes access to the countryside, and is responsible for implementing rights of access on foot to 'open country' and common land under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000. Its grants programme offers grants to organisations and individuals pursuing projects which are consistent with CCW's objectives. In 2002 CCW employed 616 staff in 16 offices throughout Wales.
Scottish Natural Heritage 1992-
Scottish Natural Heritage, established in 1992, works to secure the conservation and enhancement of Scotland's natural heritage. It also advises on policies and promotes projects which aim to improve the natural heritage and support its sustainable use.
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